Abstract 
A history of societies is always replete with the struggle for power and resistance. Resistance is a multifaceted phenomenon that can be both covert and overt, peaceful and violent. It can manifest as short-lived and temporary collective behavior, quickly forgotten, or it can take on a more institutionalized and organized form as a social movement. This article aims to understand and interpret social movements through a cultural lens by critically reviewing James Jasper's book ”protest: A Cultural introduction to Social Movements’. Accordingly, this article seeks to explore the nature of protests and social movements, the meaning that actors give to these events, the underlying economic and political basis of protests, methods of attracting supporters, and the impact of movements on each other. It will then delve into the book's foundational concepts and other similar concepts, and finally, it will point out the strengths and weaknesses of the book.
 
Keywords: social movement, moral battery, moral polarization, moral shock, social dilemmas.
 
                            
Introduction
 
The book “protest: A Cultural introduction to Social Movements” by James S. Jasper, published in 2014, offers a comprehensive exploration of the cultural dimensions of social movement. Based at the Graduate Center, City University of New York, Jasper brings a wealth of experience in the fields of politics and culture to this study.
Each chapter begins with a compelling case study, setting the stage for a deeper theoretical analysis. By examining a wide range of movements, from historical events like the Wilkes and Liberty movement and the women's suffrage movement to contemporary examples such as Occupy Wall Street and the American Christian Right, Jasper provides a rich tapestry of social movement. The book systematically explores the nature of protests, the construction of meaning, the role of economic and political structures, recruitment strategies, decision-making processes, and the broader impacts of social movements.                                              
                                                
 
Conceptual framework
 
Social movements emerge at the intersection of three structural spaces: the structural, the conceptual-interpretative, and the performative. (Johnston, 2019: 25) The structural space: A social movement comprises a network of small and large, adversarial or conciliatory groups and organizations that recruit and mobilize individuals at various levels. Beyond these, there are other significant groups: supporters, stakeholders, and NGOs. Social movements exhibit a networked structure. This intricate structure intertwines the ideological, tactical, and organizational complexities of social movements, connecting components and providing overall coherence. (Ibid: 26) Social movements are complex amalgamations of diverse groups and individuals. Consequently, the structural and organizational foundations of social movements, when considered as a whole, are typically varied and intricate, interconnected through networks of communication. These networks link activists, informal groups, and spectators who are not yet fully committed to the movement, as well as individuals who may be interested in the movement but have not yet taken action. (Johnston, 2019: 29)"
"meaningful-interpretative space: Social movements are often associated with grand, transformative ideas that provide a unifying framework. Accordingly, the conceptual-interpretative space of movements encompasses ideologies, collective action frames, collective interests, and collective identities (Ibid: 37).
Performative space: By emphasizing the performances of a movement rather than focusing solely on protest events, this perspective aligns with cultural sociology’s view of social action as a form of theater. Performances such as street protests, demonstrations, strikes, and marches are highly symbolic; they convey more than just the literal content of chants, slogans, signs, and speeches. Moreover, they are truly performances as they always have an audience: people who observe, interpret, and respond to what they see, and whose presence influences how the performance unfolds. Viewing social movement protests as performances situates them within a broader communicative context involving a range of actors and audiences. (Johnston, 2019: 24)"
 
Discussion & Result
The content of this work can be critiqued from three primary perspectives: first, the concept of the three spaces of social movements; second, the central concepts of the book; and third, the distinctiveness of this work compared to similar studies in the field of social movements.
Regarding the three spaces of social movements, while the author has made a commendable effort to link the interpretive, structural, and performative spaces, the weight of the analysis leans towards the interpretive space, and a complete balance among the three dimensions has not been achieved. The interpretive section, with its focus on the symbolic dimensions and meaning frames of movements, adds significant appeal to the work and establishes a strong connection between theory and empirical examples. However, in the sections related to the organizational structure of movements and protest performances, deeper dimensions could have been explored. For instance, a more in-depth analysis of intra-organizational networks and their impact on decision-making and collective action could have enriched this part.
In the performance section, although the role of symbolic spaces like Zuccotti Park in Occupy Wall Street is mentioned, a greater variety of performances and symbols used in different movements could have been explored, and a more detailed analysis of how meanings are produced and consumed in these performances could have been provided.
Jasper employs the concepts of moral batteries and social dilemmas in this work. The former refers to the polarized emotional landscape within social movements, categorizing certain emotions as positive and others as negative. This polarized view of emotions in social movements is reinforced by the concept of social dilemmas, which is a central theme of the book. Jasper identifies various forms of social dilemmas, such as the Janus dilemma, the dilemma of Naughty - Nice, and the dilemma of framing, suggesting that individuals often face binary choices within social movements. For instance, the Janus dilemma presents individuals with a choice between focusing on internal movement matters or engaging external actors. Similarly, the dilemma of Naughty  versus Nice poses a choice between adopting risky and disruptive tactics or adhering to familiar, legal, and peaceful tactics.                                     
While this binary logic provides a framework for understanding social movements, it may sometimes oversimplify the complexities of these dynamic phenomena. The realm of social movements is often characterized by a surge of emotions and passions, leading to the spontaneous emergence of new norms and unpredictable behaviors. In such situations, the 'either-or' logic may not be sufficient to capture the multifaceted nature of social movements, as it fails to account for the fluid and emergent qualities of collective action.                   
Distinction from Other Research: While most studies on social movements focus on their political outcomes, this book pays greater attention to how movements influence each other and their cultural consequences. It consistently emphasizes that movements do not necessarily disappear after achieving some of their goals; rather, their actions may serve as a starting point for other movements, or their associated social changes and failures may fuel further mobilization.    
                                                                      
                                                                            
conclusion
As previously discussed, A Cultural Approach to Social Movements is a product of its time, reflecting the global political landscape and a postmodern shift within political sociology, particularly in the study of social movements. Its focus on movements advocating for the rights of the marginalized and its emphasis on cultural elements embody a pluralistic and postmodern perspective, evident both in   the theoretical framework and empirical examples.                
While the book effectively captures the postmodern turn in political sociology, it falls short in addressing the recent psychoanalytic turn in politics, which is deeply intertwined with culture. The 21st century is the age of bioculture, grounded in the psychology and psychophysics of power. Contemporary studies on social movements cannot afford to ignore this fundamental reality. A renewed emphasis on the psyche, unconscious processes, and the role of anxiety, fear, desire, hysteria, anger, and hatred in shaping political symbols, discourses, and actions is necessary for a more comprehensive understanding of contemporary social movements.